Aristotle’s classification of states, as articulated in his work Politics, is a foundational theory in political philosophy. Aristotle, a student of Plato, examined various forms of government and sought to classify them based on the distribution of power and their focus on the common good versus personal interests. His approach is methodical, rooted in the idea of teleology (everything has a purpose), and centers on the nature and function of the state as an instrument of human flourishing.
The Purpose of the State
Before delving into the classification of states, Aristotle begins by defining the state itself. He views it as a natural entity, arising from the basic human need for association. For Aristotle, humans are “political animals” who achieve their highest potential in a well-ordered society, which provides for their moral and intellectual development. The state’s primary purpose is to create conditions that enable its citizens to live good, virtuous lives.
In Politics, Aristotle also argues that the state is a complex structure that evolves from simpler forms of human relationships, such as the family and the village. The family satisfies basic needs, while the village offers more complex economic and social interactions. The state, however, is the highest form of human association because it aims at achieving the highest good: the collective well-being of all citizens.
The Classification of States
Aristotle classifies governments based on two key criteria:
- Who holds the power: Is it one person, a few, or many?
- The aim of the government: Does it seek the common good, or does it serve the selfish interests of those in power?
From this, Aristotle creates six classifications of government, divided into three “correct” forms and three “deviant” forms.
Correct Forms of Government
The correct forms of government, according to Aristotle, are those that aim at the common good. These governments prioritize the welfare of the entire community over personal gain.
1. Monarchy (Rule by One for the Common Good)
- Monarchy, for Aristotle, is the best form of government when the ruler is virtuous and governs in the interests of the state as a whole. A good monarch, ideally, embodies wisdom and moral virtue, ruling with the purpose of guiding the state toward the highest good. Aristotle acknowledges, however, that such a government is rare and difficult to maintain.
- A virtuous monarchy can be highly efficient, as decisions rest in the hands of one capable ruler. The challenge lies in ensuring that the monarch remains focused on the common good and is not corrupted by personal interest.
2. Aristocracy (Rule by Few for the Common Good)
- Aristocracy refers to the rule of the best citizens, typically a small group of virtuous and wise individuals who govern for the benefit of the entire population. This form of government is, in theory, superior because it combines the wisdom of a few exceptional individuals with the pursuit of the common good.
- For Aristotle, aristocrats should possess both practical wisdom (phronesis) and moral virtue. An aristocracy avoids the pitfalls of monarchy by distributing power among a select group, ensuring that decisions are more balanced and less prone to corruption.
3. Polity (Rule by Many for the Common Good)
- Polity is Aristotle’s ideal form of government in most circumstances. It is essentially a constitutional government, where the majority rules, but within the framework of law and justice. The goal of a polity is to balance the interests of the rich and the poor, ensuring that no single class dominates the political process.
- In a polity, laws govern society, and those laws are crafted to promote the common good. The citizens participate in governance, but their power is constrained by legal institutions designed to protect the rights of all individuals. For Aristotle, polity is the most practical form of government because it avoids the extremes of both oligarchy and democracy.
Deviant Forms of Government
The deviant forms of government arise when rulers, whether one, few, or many, seek their own selfish interests rather than the common good. Aristotle views these as corrupt and inherently unstable.
1. Tyranny (Rule by One for Personal Gain)
- Tyranny is the corrupt version of monarchy. A tyrant rules solely for his own benefit, disregarding the needs of the people. Aristotle sees tyranny as the worst form of government because it completely perverts the purpose of the state. The tyrant is often brutal and oppressive, maintaining power through fear and coercion.
- A tyrannical government is unsustainable in the long run, as the ruler’s self-interest creates deep divisions within society, leading to rebellion or collapse.
2. Oligarchy (Rule by Few for Personal Gain)
- Oligarchy is the corrupt form of aristocracy, where a small group of wealthy individuals governs for their own economic advantage. In an oligarchy, the few use their power to oppress the many, particularly the poor, and to maintain their wealth and privilege.
- Oligarchies are characterized by inequality and injustice. Aristotle criticizes oligarchy for its lack of concern for the common good, as it often leads to the marginalization of the majority and social unrest.
3. Democracy (Rule by Many for Personal Gain)
- Democracy, in Aristotle’s terminology, is not what we think of as democracy today (i.e., rule by the people in a fair and just way). Instead, Aristotle views democracy as the rule of the poor majority, who govern in their own interest at the expense of the rich minority. In this system, the many pursue their own selfish goals rather than the common good.
- Aristotle criticizes democracy for its potential to lead to mob rule, where the majority imposes its will on the minority without consideration for justice or virtue. This, in turn, can lead to instability and conflict within the state
The deviant forms of government arise when rulers, whether one, few, or many, seek their own selfish interests rather than the common good. Aristotle views these as corrupt and inherently unstable.
The Mixed Constitution
Aristotle advocates for a mixed constitution, which blends elements of oligarchy and democracy to create a more stable and just government. This mixed system, which he calls a polity, balances the interests of the wealthy and the poor, creating a form of government that can avoid the extremes of both oligarchy and democracy. In a polity, laws ensure that power is not concentrated in the hands of any single class, and the government seeks to promote the common good.
Conclusion
Aristotle’s classification of states in Politics presents a nuanced and systematic approach to understanding different forms of government. By distinguishing between correct and deviant forms, he highlights the importance of pursuing the common good over personal interests. His ideal state is one where citizens can achieve their fullest potential, living virtuous and fulfilling lives. Through his exploration of monarchy, aristocracy, and polity, as well as their corrupt counterparts—tyranny, oligarchy, and democracy—Aristotle provides a framework that continues to influence political thought today. His notion of the mixed constitution, in particular, resonates with modern democratic ideals, where the rule of law, balanced institutions, and the common good are central to political governance.